Applications and Processing of Metals and Alloys

Applications and Processing of Metals and Alloys

      In the materials world we are living in, when making a new device/component, most often we come across a very familiar problem. This is nothing but select the right material. As learnt in earlier chapter, selection of material can play very important role preventing failures. Selection of material for a specific purpose depends on many factors. Some of the important ones are: strength, ease of forming, resistance to environmental degradation, etc. Another dimension an engineer should be aware of it is how to tailor the required properties of materials. 

      As introduced in one of the earlier chapters, materials can be are broadly classified as metals, ceramics and plastics. This chapter introduces different classes of metallic materials, common fabrication methods, and means to alter their properties on purpose. Following chapters deal with ceramic materials and plastic materials.

Types of metals and alloys 

     Metallic materials are broadly of two kinds – ferrous and non-ferrous materials. This classification is primarily based on tonnage of materials used all around the world. Ferrous materials are those in which iron (Fe) is the principle constituent. All other materials are categorized as non-ferrous materials. Another classification is made based on their formability. If materials are hard to form, components with these materials are fabricated by casting, thus they are called cast alloys. If material can be deformed, they are known as wrought alloys. Materials are usually strengthened by two methods – cold work and heat treatment. Strengthening by heat treatment involves either precipitation hardening or martensitic transformation, both of which constitute specific heat treating procedure. When a material can not be strengthened by heat treatment, it is referred as non-heat-treatable alloys.

Ferrous materials

      Ferrous materials are produced in larger quantities than any other metallic material. Three factors account for it: (a) availability of abundant raw materials combined with economical extraction, (b) ease of forming and (c) their versatile mechanical and physical properties. One main drawback of ferrous alloys is their environmental degradation i.e. poor corrosion resistance. Other disadvantages include: relatively high density and comparatively low electrical and thermal conductivities. In ferrous materials the main alloying element is carbon (C). Depending on the amount of carbon present, these alloys will have different properties, especially when the carbon content is either less/higher than 2.14%. This amount of carbon is specific as below this amount of carbon, material undergoes eutectoid transformation, while above that limit ferrous materials undergo eutectic transformation. Thus the ferrous alloys with less than 2.14% C are termed as steels, and the ferrous alloys with higher than 2.14% C are termed as cast irons. 

Steels 

           Steels are alloys of iron and carbon plus other alloying elements. In steels, carbon present in atomic form, and occupies interstitial sites of Fe microstructure. Alloying additions are necessary for many reasons including: improving properties, improving corrosion resistance, etc. Arguably steels are well known and most used materials than any other materials. Mechanical properties of steels are very sensitive to carbon content. Hence, it is practical to classify steels based on their carbon content. Thus steels are basically three kinds: lowcarbon steels (% wt of C < 0.3), medium carbon steels (0.3 <% wt of C < 0.6) and highcarbon steels (% wt of C > 0.6). The other parameter available for classification of steels is amount of alloying additions, and based on this steels are two kinds: (plain) carbon steels and alloy-steels.

Low carbon steels:

            These are arguably produced in the greatest quantities than other alloys. Carbon present in these alloys is limited, and is not enough to strengthen these materials by heat treatment; hence these alloys are strengthened by cold work. Their microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite, and these alloys are thus relatively soft, ductile combined with high toughness. Hence these materials are easily machinable and weldable. Typical applications of these alloys include: structural shapes, tin cans, automobile body components, buildings, etc. A special group of ferrous alloys with noticeable amount of alloying additions are known as HSLA (high-strength low-alloy) steels. Common alloying elements are: Cu, V, Ni, W, Cr, Mo, etc. These alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment, and yet the same time they are ductile, formable. Typical applications of these HSLA steels include: support columns, bridges, pressure vessels. 

Medium carbon steels: 

      These are stronger than low carbon steels. However these are of less ductile than low carbon steels. These alloys can be heat treated to improve their strength. Usual heat treatment cycle consists of austenitizing, quenching, and tempering at suitable conditions to acquire required hardness. They are often used in tempered condition. As hardenability of these alloys is low, only thin sections can be heat treated using very high quench rates. Ni, Cr and Mo alloying additions improve their hardenability. Typical applications include: railway tracks & wheels, gears, other machine parts which may require good combination of strength and toughness. 

High carbon steels: 

         These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels, and of course their ductility is very limited. These are heat treatable, and mostly used in hardened and tempered conditions. They possess very high wear resistance, and capable of holding sharp edges. Thus these are used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc. With addition of alloying element like Cr, V, Mo, W which forms hard carbides by reacting with carbon present, wear resistance of high carbon steels can be improved considerably. 

Stainless steels: 

          The name comes from their high resistance to corrosion i.e. they are rustless (stain-less). Steels are made highly corrosion resistant by addition of special alloying elements, especially a minimum of 12% Cr along with Ni and Mo. Stainless steels are mainly three kinds: ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic and precipitation hardenable (martensitic, semi-austenitic) steels. This classification is based on prominent constituent of the microstructure. Typical applications include cutlery, razor blades, surgical knives, etc. Ferritic stainless steels are principally Fe-Cr-C alloys with 12-14% Cr. They also contain small additions of Mo, V, Nb, and Ni. Austenitic stainless steels usually contain 18% Cr and 8% Ni in addition to other minor alloying elements. Ni stabilizes the austenitic phase assisted by C and N. Other alloying additions include Ti, Nb, Mo (prevent weld decay), Mn and Cu (helps in stabilizing austenite). By alloying additions, for martensitic steels Ms is made to be above the room temperature. These alloys are heat treatable. Major alloying elements are: Cr, Mn and Mo. Ferritic and austenitic steels are hardened and strengthened by cold work because they are not heat treatable. On the other hand martensitic steels are heat treatable. Austenitic steels are most corrosion resistant, and they are produced in large quantities. Austenitic steels are non-magnetic as against ferritic and martensitic steels, which are magnetic. 

Cast irons 

       Though ferrous alloys with more than 2.14 wt.% C are designated as cast irons, commercially cast irons contain about 3.0-4.5% C along with some alloying additions. Alloys with this carbon content melt at lower temperatures than steels i.e. they are responsive to casting. Hence casting is the most used fabrication technique for these alloys. Hard and brittle constituent presented in these alloys, cementite is a meta-stable phase, and can readily decompose to form α-ferrite and graphite. In this way disadvantages of brittle phase can easily be overcome. Tendency of cast irons to form graphite is usually controlled by their composition and cooling rate. Based on the form of carbon present, cast irons are categorized as gray, white, nodular and malleable cast irons.  

Gray cast iron: 

These alloys consists carbon in form graphite flakes, which are surrounded by either ferrite or pearlite. Because of presence of graphite, fractured surface of these alloys look grayish, and so is the name for them. Alloying addition of Si (1- 3wt.%) is responsible for decomposition of cementite, and also high fluidity. Thus castings of intricate shapes can be easily made. Due to graphite flakes, gray cast irons are weak and brittle. However they possess good damping properties, and thus typical applications include: base structures, bed for heavy machines, etc. they also show high resistance to wear. 

White cast iron: 

When Si content is low (< 1%) in combination with faster cooling rates, there is no time left for cementite to get decomposed, thus most of the brittle cementite retains. Because of presence of cementite, fractured surface appear white, hence the name. They are very brittle and extremely difficult to machine. Hence their use is limited to wear resistant applications such as rollers in rolling mills. Usually white cast iron is heat treated to produce malleable iron.

 Nodular (or ductile) cast iron: 

Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing these materials. Small additions of Mg / Ce to the gray cast iron melt before casting can result in graphite to form nodules or sphere-like particles. Matrix surrounding these particles can be either ferrite or pearlite depending on the heat treatment. These are stronger and ductile than gray cast irons. Typical applications include: pump bodies, crank shafts, automotive components, etc.

 Malleable cast iron:

 These formed after heat treating white cast iron. Heat treatments involve heating the material up to 800-900 ْC, and keep it for long hours, before cooling it to room temperature. High temperature incubation causes cementite to decompose and form ferrite and graphite. Thus these materials are stronger with appreciable amount of ductility. Typical applications include: railroad, connecting rods, marine and other heavyduty services. 

 Non-ferrous materials 

         Non-ferrous materials have specific advantages over ferrous materials. They can be fabricated with ease, high relatively low density, and high electrical and thermal conductivities. However different materials have distinct characteristics, and are used for specific purposes. This section introduces some typical non-ferrous metals and their alloys of commercial importance. 

Aluminium alloys: 

      These are characterized by low density, high thermal & electrical conductivities, and good corrosion resistant characteristics. As Al has FCC crystal structure, these alloys are ductile even at low temperatures and can be formed easily. However, the great limitation of these alloys is their low melting point (660 ْC), which restricts their use at elevated temperatures. Strength of these alloys can be increased by both cold and heat treatment – based on these alloys are designated in to two groups, cast and wrought. Chief alloying elements include: Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn. Recently, alloys of Al and other low-density metals like Li, Mg, Ti gained much attention as there is much concern about vehicle weight reduction. Al-Li alloys enjoy much more attention especially as they are very useful in aircraft and aerospace industries. Common applications of Al alloys include: beverage cans, automotive parts, bus bodies, aircraft structures, etc. Some of the Al alloys are capable of strengthening by precipitation, while others have to be strengthened by cold work or solid solution methods. 

Copper alloys:

 As history goes by, bronze has been used for thousands of years. It is actually an alloy of Cu and Sn. Unalloyed Cu is soft, ductile thus hard to machine, and has virtually unlimited capacity for cold work. One special feature of most of these alloys is their corrosion resistant in diverse atmospheres. Most of these alloys are strengthened by either cold work or solid solution method. Common most Cu alloys: Brass, alloys of Cu and Zn where Zn is substitutional addition (e.g.: yellow brass, catridge brass, muntz metal, gilding metal); Bronze, alloys of Cu and other alloying additions like Sn, Al, Si and Ni. Bronzes are stronger and more corrosion resistant than brasses. Mention has to be made about Beryllium coppers who possess combination of relatively high strength, excellent electrical and corrosion properties, wear resistance, can be cast, hot worked and cold worked. Applications of Cu alloys include: costume jewelry, coins, musical instruments, electronics, springs, bushes, surgical and dental instruments, radiators, etc. 

Magnesium alloys: 

The most sticking property of Mg is its low density among all structural metals. Mg has HCP structure, thus Mg alloys are difficult to form at room temperatures. Hence Mg alloys are usually fabricated by casting or hot working. As in case of Al, alloys are cast or wrought type, and some of them are heat treatable. Major alloying additions are: Al, Zn, Mn and rare earths. Common applications of Mg alloys include: hand-held devices like saws, tools, automotive parts like steering wheels, seat frames, electronics like casing for laptops, camcoders, cell phones etc.

Titanium alloys:

    Ti and its alloys are of relatively low density, high strength and have very high melting point. At the same time they are easy to machine and forge. However the major limitation is Ti’s chemical reactivity at high temperatures, which necessitated special techniques to extract. Thus these alloys are expensive. They also possess excellent corrosion resistance in diverse atmospheres, and wear properties. Common applications include: space vehicles, airplane structures, surgical implants, and petroleum & chemical industries.

 Refractory metals: 

      These are metals of very high melting points. For example: Nb, Mo, W and Ta. They also possess high strength and high elastic modulus. Common applications include: space vehicles, x-ray tubes, welding electrodes, and where there is a need for corrosion resistance. 

Noble metals: 

     These are eight all together: Ag, Au, Pt, Pa, Rh, Ru, Ir and Os. All these possess some common properties such as: expensive, soft and ductile, oxidation resistant. Ag, Au and Pt are used extensively in jewelry, alloys are Ag and Au are employed as dental restoration materials; Pt is used in chemical reactions as a catalyst and in thermo couples. 

Fabrication of metals

         Metals are fabricated by different means to achieve metals and alloys of desired characteristics. There been many kinds of fabrication techniques, and for a particular metal use of these depend on properties of metal, product shape-size-properties, cost, etc. Metal fabrication techniques are mainly four kinds: Casting - to give a shape by pouring in liquid metal into a mold that holds the required shape, and letting harden the metal without external pressure; Forming – to give shape in solid state by applying pressure; Machining – in which material is removed in order to give it the required shape; and Joining – where different parts are joined by various means. One of the most important miscellaneous techniques is powder metallurgy. 

 Metal casting

      This technique is employed when (a) product is large and/or complicated shape (b) particular material is low in ductility. This is also employed as it is usually economical compared with other techniques. Different casting techniques include: sand, die, investment, continuous casting

Sand casting: 

    The common casting method where sand is used as casting material. A two piece mold (cope and drag) is formed by compact packing of sand around a pattern of required shape. An addition gating is provided for proper distribution of liquid metal. 

Die casting: 

    Here metal is forced into mold by external pressure at high velocities. Usually a permanent two-piece mold made of steel is used. In this technique rapid cooling rates are achieved, thus inexpensive.

 Investment casting: 

     In this pattern is made of wax. Then fluid slurry of casting material is poured over which eventually hardens and holds the required shape. Subsequently, pattern material is heated to leave behind the cavity. This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy, reproduction of fine details, and an excellent finish are required. For example: jewelry, dental crowns, and gas turbine blades jet engine impellers. 

Continuous casting: 

    After refining metals are usually in molten state, which are later solidified into ingots for further processing like forming. In continuous casting, solidification and primary forming process are combined, where refined metal is cast directly into a continuous strand which is cooled by water jets. This technique is highly automated and more efficient. Uniform composition through-out the casting is achievable when compared with ingot-cast products.